to begin with greek roman philosopher like so ratesPlateau Xienophon acted as torchbearerswith their assessment of democracy civil lifebut as Roman Empire collapsed those progressiveideas merged into feudal Europe which isbeingreferred to as the dark ages owing to corruptclergyand ruling class degradation of nationalthoughtIntroduction:• The types of state that exists today and thenature of the relation it shares with its citizenshas its roots in political philosophy such asSocialism, Capitalism, Communism andDemocracy.• Literally, political philosophy is the study offundamental questions about the state,government, politics, Liberty, justice and theenforcement of a legal code by authority.• It is ethics applied to a group of people, anddiscuss is how a society should be set upand how one should act within a society.Individual rights that has the right tolife, Liberty, property, the pursuit ofhappiness, free speech, self-defense,etc. state)explicitly the requirements fora person to benefit rather than sufferfrom living in a societY.Nevertheless, the favorableintellectual environment wasproduced during theRenaissance( between 14th and16th century), in addition withenlightenment late 17th and early18th century) also called the'age of reason', thatcirculated the ideas like reason,individualism, and skepticism.Some form of capitalism has been dominant in the western world since the end offeudalism)in the Middle Ages, and has provided the main, although not exclusive,means of industrialization throughout much of the world.• It rise to prominence sprang out of the mercantilism of the 16th to the 18thcenturies, and followed the rise of liberalism and Laissez-faire economics inwestern society.• The capitalist mode of production, however, may exist within societies with thediffering state systems (example liberal democracy, fascism) and different socialstructures. Capitalism Capitalism is the economics and social systemand also the node of production) In which themeans of production are predominantlyprivately owned and operated for profit, anddistribution and exchange is in a mainlymarket economy.• But usually considered to involve the rightof individuals and corporations to trade( usingmoney) in goods, services, labor and land.• With the emergence of modern Nation-States in the 16th to the
18thcenturies, mercantilism(economic theory that the prosperity of anation depends upon its capital, or economic assets, asrepresented by gold and silver, and that the volume of the worldeconomy and international tradeis unchangeable, encouraging a protectionist role forgovernment) became dominant in Europe.• The classical tradition incapitalist economics thought emerged in Britain in the late 18thcentury, with Adam Smith, David Ricardo (1772-1823) and JohnStuart Mill, as well as with Jean-Baptise Say in France.Important contributions to the theory of property arefound in the earlier work of John Locke, who hadargued that the right to private property is a naturalright.•Adam Smith's criticism of the Mercantile system inhis "The wealth of Nations" of 1776 is often consideredthe beginning of classical political economy.• Smith devised a set of concepts that remain stronglyassociated with capitalism today, particularly his theoryof the "invisible hand" of the market, through whichthe pursuit of individual self-interest unintentionallyproduces a collective good for society. CommunismMany political thinkers Shifted theirpoles between Capitalism andcommunism as they deemed fit'for theirimmediate society because the problemsthey faced differed from society to society.• For example, Fascist opposed bothinternational socialism and free marketcapitalism, arguing that their viewsrepresented a third position.• They claimed to provide a realisticeconomic alternative that was neitherLaissez-faire capitalism nor Communism.Communist thought it also accredited tocommunist ideas back to ancient times,particularly in the work of Pythagoras andPlato.• For instance, it is argued that Plato's Republicdescribed in great detail a communistdominated society wherein power is delegatedinto the hands of intelligent philosopher or amilitary Guardian class and rejected theconcept of family and private.• In addition, in 16th century, English writers ofThomas More portrayed a society based oncommon ownership of property in his treaties'Utopia', whose leaders administered it throughthe application of reason.Marx offered the staunchest critic of capitalism in his work"Das Capital" in which he argued that, the owners of capitalare the dominant capitalist class(or Bourgeoisie), and theworking class or proletariat) who does not own capital mustlive by selling their labor power in exchange for a wage.• According to Karl Marx, capitalism is based on theexploitation of workers by the owners of capital, and underhis theory of historical materialism, it represents just one ofthe stages in the evolution of a society which would beoverthrown as the workers gain class consciousness andtake control over the state. Socialismexality inopportunityor equality inoutcome both raredifferent topicequality in opportunity okequality in outcome doesn'texe sit it's a recipefor chaotic so cityOSocialism is Socio-Economic system in whickgruvproperty and the distribution of wealth are subjee tocontrol by the workers, either directly through popularcollectives such as workers' councils, or indirectlyexercised on behalf of the people by the state, and inwhich egalitarianism or equality is an important goal.• Thus, under Socialism, the means of production areowned by the state, community of the workers! asopposed to privately owned as under capitalism).• Communism and Socialism are economic andpolitical structures that promote equality and seek oeliminate social classes.Poverty spread so widely in the Soviet Union if(1980s that its Citizen(revolted• Like Communism, the main focus of Socialismis on equality.• But workers earn wages they can spend as theychoose, while the government, not citizens, ownsand operates the means for production.• Workers receive what they need to produceand survive, but there's no incentive to achievemore, leaving little motivation.• The term socialism is variously attributed toPierre Leroux or to Marie Roch Louis Reybaudor RobertOwen in the mid 19th century.•According toFrederick Engels, by 1847, the termSocialism( usually referring to the Utopianphilosophies of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier)was considered quite respectable on the continent ofEurope, while Communism was the opposite.The two aré interchangeable in some ways, our differentin others.• In a Communist society, the working class ownseverything, and everyone works towards the samecommunal goal.• There are no wealthy or poor people all are equal, andthe community distributes what it produces based onlyon need.• Nothing is obtained by working more than what isrequired
1.• Communism frequently results in low production, masspoverty and limited advancement. Certain elements of socialist thought long predatethe socialist ideology that emerged in the first halfof the 19th centurv• For example, Plato's "The Republic" and SirThomas Moore's Utopia dating from 1516 havebeen cited as including Socialist or Communistideas.• Modern Socialism emerged in early 19th centuryBritain and France, from a diverse array ofDoctrines and Social experiments, largely as areaction or protests against some of the excesses of
18th and 19th century capitalism.Carly 19 century socialist thought was largely Utopian innature, followed by the more praguati and revolutionarySocialist and Communist movements in the late 19th century.Social critics in the late 18th century and the early 19thcentury such as Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Pierre-JosephProudhon, Louis Blanc, Louis Blanc and Henri de Saint-Simon criticize the excesses of poverty and inequality of theindustrial revolution, and advocated reforms such as theegalitarian distribution of wealth and the transformation ofsociety into small utopian communities in which privateproperty was to be abolished.Some Socialist Religious movements, such as the(Shakers in America, also date from this periSUasdoes the Chartist movement for political andsocial reforms in the United Kingdom( possiblythe first mass working class movement in theworld).• It was Karl Marx, though, who first employedsystematic analysis sometimes known as"Scientific Socialism") in an ambitious attempt toexpose capitalism's contradictions and the specificmechanisms by which it exploits and alienates.In '1864, the International Workingman's Association (IWA) OKFirst International was founded in London, and became the firstmajor international forum for the promulgation of Socialist ideas,under the leadership of Marx and Johann Georg Eccarius.• Anarchists, like Russian Mikhail Bakunin, and proponents ofother alternative visions of Socialism, which emphasized thepotential of small scale communities and agrarianism, coexistedwith the more influential currents of Marxism and socialdemocracy.• Much of the development of Socialism is indistinguishable fromthe development of Communism, which is essentially an extreme Marx and Engels, who together had founded the SocialDemocratic Workers Party of GermariUCh 1869, we're alsoresponsible for setting up the (Second Internationall orSocialist International) in 1889, as the ideas of socialismgained new adherents, especially in central Europe, and justbefore his death in 1895, Engels boasted of a"single great international army of Socialists"• In the First World War started in 1914, the Socialist SocialDemocratic parties in the UK, France, Belgium andGermany supported their respective state's war effort,discarding their commitment to internationalism andsolidarity, and the second international dissolved during thewar.• In Russia, however, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin denounced thewar as an imperialist conflicTUnd urged workersworldwide to use it as an occasion for proletarianrevolution• In February 1917, revolution broke out in Russia and theworkers, soldiers and peasants set up councils.• The Bolsheviks won a majority in the Soviets in October
1917 and, at the same time, the Octobre revolution was ledby Lenin and Leon Trotsky.• The new Soviet government immediatelyKationalized the banks and major industries|UDVIrepudiated the former Romonov regime's national debts,sued for peace and withdrew from the First World War,and implemented a system of government through theelected workers council or Soviets.• The Third International also known as the CommunistInternational or Comintern) was an internationalcommunist organization founded in Moscow 1919 toreplace the Disbanded SecondInternational.• After Lenin's death in 1924, the Communist Party ofSoviet Union, under Joseph Stalin declared a policy of"Socialism in One Country", taking the route of• This led to a polarization of socialism around thequestion of the Soviet Union and adoption o (Socialistsor Social Democratic policies in response, or in othercases the vehement repudiation of all (that it stand for.• However, not everyone thought Socialism is necessarilyentailing revolution, and non-revolutionaries such asinfluential economist John Maynard Keynes and JohnKenneth Galbraith, took inspiration from the work ofJohn Stuart Mill as well as Marx, and providedtheoretical justification for state involvement in anexisting market economy. rPretty ridiculoushah google alsorecognizecommunistleaders as socialist(• Criticisms of socialism range from disagreements (over theefficiency of Socialist economic and political models, to outrightcondemnation of Socialist states.& Some critics dispute that the egalitariandistribution of wealth and nationalization of industries advocatedby some Socialists can be achieved without loss of political oreconomic freedoms.• Some argue that countries where the means of productions areSocialized are less prosperous than those where the means ofproduction are nder private control.• Yet others argue that Socialist policiesreduceuN/or incentives because workers do notreceive rewards for a work well done) and reduceefficiency through the elimination of the profitand loss mechanism and a free price system andreliance on central planning.• They also argue that Socialism stagnatestechnology due to the competition being stifled.• The tragedy of the commons effect has beenattributed to Socialism by some, whereby whenassets are owned in common, there are noincentives in place to encourage wisestewardship that is if everyone owned an asset,people act as if no one owns it).• There has also been much focus on the econgwisperformance and human rights records of Communiststates, although this is not necessarily a criticism ofSocialism.• Socialists have counter argued that Socialism can actuallyincrease efficiency and economic growth better thancapitalism, or that a certain degree off efficiency can andshould be sacrificed for the sake of economic quality orother social goals.• They further argue that market systems have a naturaltendency towards Monopoly or Oligopoly in majorindustries, leading to a distortion of prices, and that a publicmonopoly is better than a privateone.• Also, they claim that a Socialist approach can(mitigate the role ofexternalities in pricing• Some Socialists have made a case of Socialism and central planning being betterable to address the issue of managing the environment than selfserving capitalism.The proposed model of Social Democracy anmore Left wing Democratic socialisncracy afraconsidered a moderate form of Socialism( althoughmany societies would not), and aims to reformCapitalism democratically through state regulationand the creation of a state sponsored programs andorganizations which work to ameliorate or removeinjustices purportedly inflicted by the capitalistmarking system. start of socialismend of socialismFew era ofsocialism willends asdictatorshipHistorically, there have been many variations ofproposed and realized Socialism.• Socialist philosophy have evolved considerablyovertime.• What holds all of them together is, perhaps, afundamental belief that capitalism must either bereigned in or eliminated in order for inequality to bereduced, an individual and collective freedoms andwell-being to be ensured.• Socialism in its current form, can be broadlybroken down into these categories:• Democratic Socialism:• Democratic Socialism Is a political philosophi tha advocatespolitical democracy alongside Social ownership of the meansof production with an emphasis on self-management and/orDemocratic management of economic institutions withinmarket socialism or decentralized and participatory plannedeconomy.• Fabian Socialism:• A form of Socialism in which a gradualist or a reformersagenda rather than revolutionary agenda in reigning over thenegativities of Socialism and advancing the principles ofDemocratic Socialism.This is closest among the forms of Socialism which s followedin India.„Market Socialism?• Market socialism is a term used to define aneconomic system in which there is a market economydirected and guided by socialist planners, and whereprices would be set through trial and error makingadjustments as shortages and surpluses occur) ratherthan relying on a free price mechanism.• By contrast, a Socialist market economy, such asthat practiced in People's Republic of China, is onewhere major industries are owned by the stateentities, but compete with each other within a pricingsystem set by the market and the state does notroutinely intervene in the setting ofmrices.Libertarian Socialism:• It aims to create a society without politicat,economic or social hierarchies, in which everyperson would have free, equal access to toolof(information and production:• This would be achieved through the abolition ofMauthoritarian institutions and private property,so that direct control of the means of productionand resources will be gained by the working classin society as a whole.• Most Libertarian Socialists advocate abolishingthe state altogether, in much the same way asUtopian Socialists and many varieties ofAnarchism( including Social Anarchism, Anarcho-Communism, narcho-Collectivism. and Anarcho-Svndicalism)• Anarcho-Communism:• It has many of the features ofLibertarian Socialism but differentiatesitself mainly in that it seeks a morecomplete, stateless anarchy and facilitatesindividual agency above collective orcommunal concerns. Libertarianismthis would've workedif we didn't havereligion us vs themmentality or Biologyamong us• Libertarianism includes a broad spectrum ofpolitical philosophies, each sharing thecommon overall priority of minimalgovernment combined with optimum possibleindividual Liberty.• Its goals prioritize freedom: freedom ofspeech, freedom of assembly, freedom to beararms, freedom of and from religion, freedomof the press, freedom of ownership andeconomic freedom.• It promotes personal responsibility andprivate charity, as opposed to the provision ofwelfare services by the state, and it rejects thecompulsions of socialism and communism.• Individual libertarians may differ considerablovo over particularissue and, although there are libertarian political partiesworldwide, even these differ significantly in their outlooks andpolicies.• There is also a significant disparity between the usage of theterm in the United States where it is often consideredsynonymous with liberalism and individualism in general, andconservatism in particular, especially insofar as it supports limitedgovernment) and elsewhere but it is most often understood torefer to radical leftist currents of Anarchism).•Generally, libertarians defend the ideal offreegon from the perspective of how little oneis constrained by authority, that is how muchone is allowed to do( negative Liberty), asopposed to the opportunity and ability to actto fulfill one's own potential( Positive Liberty),a distinction first noted by John Stuart Mill.•They view life, Liberty and property as theultimate rights possessed by individuals, andthat compromising one necessarily endangersthe rest.• They consider compromise of these individuadovo rights bypolitical action to be "tyranny of the majority" a term first coinedby Alexis de Tocquevilte, and made famous by John Stuart Mill.• Many libertarians would also argue, however, that representativemajority rule democracy has all largely become controlled byspecial interest groups who represent a minority, leading to a"tyranny of the minority" against the real numerical majority. • The term "Libertarian" stems from theFrenshov 0 world Libertaire(For Liberty), and its
first recorded use in a political sense was in 1857by Anarcho-Communist Joseph Dejacque.• In common usage, "libertarian" refers to aperson who advocates Liberty, especially withregards to thought or conduct, or a person whomaintains the doctrine of free will.• The French philosopher Montesquieu develgged a distinctionbetween sovereign and administrative powers, and propose aseparation of powers usually into the executive, the legislativeand the judicial) to act as a counterweight to the naturaltendency of administrative power to grow at the expense ofindividual rights.• This became an important concept in both constitutionalmonarchy's and republics.• While, Locke believed that the role of any legislature was toprotect natural rights in the legal form of civil rights.• He proposed ¿labour theory of property wharegy eachindividual owns the fruits of his efforts by virtue of hislabor, and from this an economy emerges based onprivate property and trade, with money as the mediumof exchange• Adam Smith's moral philosophy stretch governmentnon-intervention so that individuals could achievewhatever their "God given talents" would allow withoutinterference from arbitrary forces.• He also opposed trade Guilds forerunners to modernunions) and joint stock companies\ or corporations) forthe same reasons.• The founding fathers of the United Statesenshrined the protection of Liberty as the primarypurpose of government in the Declaration ofIndependence of 1776 and the United States constitution,and Thomas Jefferson in particular was key in establishingthe Law of Equal Liberty and the non-aggression principleas major tenants.• Very similar ideas were also included in the Frenchdeclaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789, a keydocument in the French Revolution. • It was only in the latter half of the 20th cent gM Othat the term libertarian which had earlier beenassociated with Anarchism, came to be adopted bythose whose attitudes bore closer resemblance to theclassical liberals. 3• Rights Libertarianism( or Rights Theory or Libertarian Moralismor Deontological libertarianism):• Rights Theorists assert that: (a) all persons are the absoluteowners of their lives, and should be free to do whatever they wishwith their own bodies or property, provided they do not infringe onthe rights of another to do the same the law of equal Liberty); and(b) That aggression, or the initiation of physical force or the threatof such, against a person or his property, is inherently illegitimateinsofar as it impinges on the equal rights of a person ( the non-aggression principle), except in the case of self-defense.• This view of "natural rights" drives from thesharly writings of Thomas Hobbes and JohnLocke.• Most Rights Libertarians recognize thenecessity of a limited role of government as a"necessary evil" to protect individuals from anyviolation of their rights, and to prosecute thosewho initiate force against others Minarchism),although some opposes the existence ofgovernment and taxation altogether on thegrounds that it represents non-aggression againstindividual rights by its very nature( Anarcho-Capitalism).• Robert Nozick and Murray Rothbard arerepresentatives of this view of libertarianism.• Consequentialist Libertarianism( or LibertariaN oConsequentialism):• Consequentialist libertarianism justifies the rights ofindividuals or pragmatic or consequentialist, as well as moral,grounds consequentialism is the moral theory that theconsequences of a particular action from the basis or anyvalid moral judgement about that action).• They are less concerned with the non-aggression principleand more concerned with the notion of a society that allowsindividuals to enjoy political and economic Liberty, whichthey see as foundation for the human happiness andprosperity.•They argue that individual Liberty leads toeconomic efficiency and other benefits, and it does the mosteffective means of promoting or enhancing social welfare.• Milton Friedman, Ludwig von Mises, and Frederick Hayek,major proponents of this view. o• Liberals also ended mercantilists policies, Rgilamonopolies and other barriers to trade, insteadpromoting free markets.• Philosopher John Locke often credited withfounding liberalism as a distinct tradition, arguingthat each man has a natural right to life, Liberty andproperty, adding that government must not violatethese rights based on the Social Contract.• While the British liberal tradition has emphasizedexpanding democracy, French liberalism hasemphasized rejecting authoritarianism and is linked tonation building.• Liberalism is perhaps the most popular formANingovernment across all democracies of the world, includingIndia, Western Europe and United States.• Liberalism and Pluralism are similar in the sense that bothsupport equality, tolerance and democracy.• In fact, Pluralism is a principle which developed by theLiberals in nothing but a part of the Liberal tradition.• Further, both of them seek social change through theinstitutions of democracy viz. Political Parties and UniversalAdult Franchise.• Broadly falling under Libertarianism,Liberalismarisam political view based on Libertyand equality.• Liberals generally support civil rights, democracy,secularism, gender equality, internationalism, andthe freedoms of speech, the press, religion andmarkets.• Liberalism became a distinct movement in theage of enlightenment, when it became popularamong western philosophers and economists.• Liberalism sought to replace the norms ofhereditary privilege, state religion, absolutemonarchy, the divine right of Kings and thetraditional conservatism and representativedemocracy and the rule of law. fascismO• Fascism is an authoritarian nationalist politia ideologythat exalts nation( and often race) above the individual,and that stands for a centralized autocratic governmentheaded by a dictatorial leader, severe economic andsocial regimentation, and forcible suppression ofopposition.• The term "Fascismo" was coined by the Italian fascistdictator Benito Mussolini and the self-described"Philosopher of Fascism" GiovanniGentile.• It is derived from the Latin word "fasces", an ancientRoman symbol consisting of a bundle of rods tiedaround an axe, used to suggest "strength and unity".• It was originally used to refer specifically to Mussolini'spolitical movement that ruled MaNy. Q from 1922 to
1943, but has subsequently also been used to describeother regimes.• It often claims to be concerned with notions of culturaldecline or decadence, and seeks to achieve a nationalrebirth by suppressing the interest of the individual, andinstead promoting cults of unity, energy and purity.• In economics, Fascism sees itself as a third waybetween Laissez-Faire capitalism on the one hand andCommunism or Socialism on the other.• It acknowledges the role of private propertyuandthe profit motive as legitimate incentives forproductivity, but only insofar as they do not conflictwith the interests of the state.• Fascist governments tend to nationalize keyindustries, closely manage their currencies andmake massive state investments.• They also tend to introduce price controls, wagecontrols and other types of economic planningmeasures but there's a state regulated allocation ofresources, especially in the financial and rawmaterials sectors). if you don't youcould be missingafter sometime• Fascism usually involves some degree of some o all of thefollowing elements:• Nationalism( based on the cultural, racial and/or religiousattributes of a region).• Totalitarianism( it regulated or nearly every aspect of public andprivate sectors).• Statism( state intervention in personal, social or economicmatters).• Patriotism( positive and supportive attitudes to aFatherland.• Autocracy( rather Google power in the hands of a single self-appointed ruler)•Militarism maintaining of a strong military capabilityand being prepared to use it aggresSivel to defend orpromote national interests).• Corporatism( encouragement of unelected bodieswhich exerts control over the social and economic life oftheir respective areas).• Populism( direct appeals to the masses, usually bycharismatic leader).• Collectivism( stress on human independence ratherthan on the importance of separate individuals)(It usually expresses opposition to the following- Liberalism policies of minimal interference OF bygovernment, both politically and economically).• Communism( specifically Marxism, but generally anycommunal social organization).• Democracy majority rule and competitive elections withfreedom of speech, freedom of press and some degree ofrule of law).• Individualism( stress on human independence and theimportance of individual self-reliance andLiberty)Types of Fascism:• Italian Fascism:• It is the authoritarian political movement whichruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under theleadership of Benito Mussolini.• It is the original model which inspired otherFascist ideologies, and is generally refered tosimply as Fascism.• It grew out of Mussolini's desire to re-affirmItalian national identify and pride after somarv centuries of disunity innovetor or fail iurecopy eat but su cess• Similar movements appeared throughout theworld -including Europe, Japan, and Latin America)between World War I and World War It.• Nazism( or National Socialism)refers to theideology and practices of the German Nazi Party(orNational Socialist German Workers'Party) under Adolf Hitler between 1933 and 1945.• It was a strongly nationalist, totalitarian, racist,anti-Semitic and anti-Communist movement, whichgrew up in the aftermath of German humiliationafter World War I, which was partly blamed onGermany's Jews.Hitler published his political beliefs inMeinRampf" in 1925 and, inspired by the ItalianSTUDY IQ Fascism of Mussolini, assumeddictatorial powers as Chancellor in 1933.• His belief in the superiority of an Aryan raceand the possibilities of eugenics(racialpurification), his fierce anti-Semitism and antiCommunism, combined with his militaristic andexpansionist ambitions led to World War II, withits atrocities and genocide, eventual militarydefeat and the subsequent abandonment ofNazism as a viable ideology.Clerical Fascism:• It is an Ideology that combines the political and economicdoctrines of Fascism with theology or religious tradition.• The term originally emerged in the 1920s referring to theCatholic support for the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini,but has since been applied to various regimes andmovements, particularly in Europe and South America.Neo-Fascism:• Neo-Fascism is any post World War Two ideologythat includes significant elements of Fascism, or thatexpresses specific admiration or Benito Mussolini andItalian Fascism, again particularly in Europe andSouth America.• It includes various neo Nazi movements, which canbe found almost worldwide.