Mastering Metacognition For Better LearningLearning anything new is, for most of us, an inexorable challenge replete with mistakes,failures, and moments of despair or frustration. It’s also completely necessary to never stoplearning in order to survive the modern world. So we shouldn’t make it any more onerous thanit needs to be. Improving our metacognition is an impactful way to streamline learning and saveconsiderable time in the long run.What is metacognition?Metacognition is, quite simply, thinking about thinking. It’s going beyond the object level andconsidering not just what you know, but how you learn and how you can improve it. As one ofthe most important components of learning, metacognition involves identifying successfulapproaches and being realistic about unproductive ones or errors. The more rigorously you’reable to assess your learning and make pertinent adjustments, the more efficiently you can pickup new capabilities.Berating yourself for mistakes and working as hard as possible is not metacognition. It’s aboutworking with your brain, rather than against it. Most people don’t do this. They diligentlytrudge on with the techniques they picked up in school or with what looks the most productiveor what makes it feel like they’re learning. At the same time, they wonder why they stopimproving or take forever to absorb anything new. Mastering metacognition can save you yearsof effort.The origins of metacognitionStanford developmental psychologist John Flavell coined the term in the 1970s as part of hisresearch into childhood cognitive development. Flavell was heavily influenced by the Swisspsychologist Jean Piaget. He described metacognition in 1976 as “one's knowledge concerningone's own cognitive processes or anything related to them, e.g., the learning-relevant propertiesof information or data. For example, I am engaging in metacognition if I notice that I am havingmore trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double-check C before accepting itas fact.” In his work, he classified it as a planned, conscious process. Metacognitive knowledgeFlavell identified several components of metacognition, of which the most relevant for ourpurposes here is metacognitive knowledge. This, in turn, is made up of three types ofknowledge: declarative, procedural, and strategic.Metacognitive knowledge is what we know about what we know. It is our awareness of ourexisting abilities, our strengths and defects, and strategies for improvement. Flavell wrote thatit is: “...that segment of your (a child's, an adult's) stored world knowledge that has to do with1people as cognitive creatures and with their diverse cognitive tasks, goals, actions, andexperiences. An example would be a child's acquired belief that unlike many of her friends, she isbetter at arithmetic than at spelling.” Such knowledge helps us to plan tasks, set goals, selectappropriate strategies, and anticipate success or failure. Flavell then divided this into threecategories.Declarative (or person) knowledge consists of what you know about yourself as a learner,other people as learners, and universal facts about learning. For example, you might know thatit is easier to pick up a foreign language while immersed in it and that you personally find iteasy to learn vocabulary but struggle to pick up an accent.Procedural (or task) knowledge is specific to the task at hand and what you know about how tocomplete it. For example, when learning a foreign language you may know that you need tomaster speaking, reading, and writing. Flashcards may work for learning to read but you’ll needto practice with a native speaker to get your accent right in order to speak with fluency.Strategic knowledge concerns the methods you know for learning and the insights you possessabout how best to tackle problems. For example, you might know that spaced repetition is apotent way to encode vocabulary in your memory when learning a foreign language.The four levels of metacognitive learnersEducator David Perkins, writing in Smarter Schools: Better Thinking and Learning for Every Child,defines four levels of metacognitive learning:1 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7817/fe40a0c10af647a76753d9b53f511df704a7.pdf 1. Tacit learning - not thinking metacognitively. At this level, someone either knows thatthey know something or that they don’t, but they do not consider other factors such ashow well they know it or how they can improve their knowledge.2. Aware learning - some awareness of the learning process, though without adequatelythinking it through or acting upon any observations.3. Strategic learning - awareness of how to organize learning and seeking out strategies toimprove it. Someone at this stage knows that learning strategies vary in efficacydepending on the individual and the task, so they are willing to experiment.4. Reflecting learning - doing the same as strategic learning, as well as monitoring thesuccess of learning strategies and adjusting or changing tack in response to outcomes.(Readers may note that this is double loop learning.)When you’re seeking to learn something new, establish which level you’re on and aim to moveup to reflective learning.Techniques for improving your metacognitionAnything that makes you more aware of what you know about an area, how well you’relearning, where the gaps lie, and so on, can improve your metacognition. The aim is to becomecognizant of your learning process and knowledge level whenever possible. We can divideimproving metacognition into two parts: research and observation. You can observe yourselfand the results you get to gather data about how you can learn better. And you can researchthe process of learning, such as looking up what we know about how memories are stored, orhow long an optimal study session should be.Here are a few techniques for improving your metacognition through observing yourself. We’velisted some resources at the end of this article for discovering more about learning itself to aidin your assessments.The muddiest pointAfter you’ve spent a session learning something, or as a general point about a competencyyou’re working on, try noting down what you found the hardest about it. Consider why thatmight be and any specific techniques you could use to tackle it.Known as ‘the muddiest point’, this helps identify where to focus your energy and encourageshonesty about your abilities. We often shy away from admitting what we don’t know, butwriting it down is important because we learn the most by battling through confusion. Keeping a learning diaryWe recommend testing and improving your decision-making by keeping a notebook in whichyou record your process and the outcomes of decisions.Keeping a learning diary has similar benefits. There are many ways to do this. When you try outa new learning technique, jot down your expectations and track how it works out. Write downyour reflections as you learn and anything that stands out. Note any improvements for thefuture.Writing summaries and recallOne of the most effective ways to both identify what you know and how to improve it, whilealso strengthening your knowledge, is by recalling it after a delay. This could involve writing adetailed summary or simply coming up with relevant keywords. After a delay we tend to have abetter understanding of what we know and can monitor the progress of our learning, regulatingwhat we do. One reason recall is so effective is that a great challenge of learning is2establishing what we actually know.3Asking questionsWe can improve a lot of things by simply asking better questions. Some example questions forboosting metacognition, suggested by Kimberly D. Tanner in Promoting Student Metacognition,include (note that these are obviously aimed at students):4Planning:● What are the goals of the session going to be?● What do I already know about this topic?● What questions do I already have about this topic?● What do I need to do to successfully complete this task?● If I have done something like this before, how can I do a better job?● Which aspects should I spend more or less time on?Monitoring● What insights am I having as I experience this session?● What questions are arising from this?2 https://wp.stolaf.edu/cila/files/2012/11/thiede_jedp.pdf3 https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.596.2852&rep=rep1&type=pdf4 https://www.lifescied.org/doi/full/10.1187/cbe.12-03-0033 ● Do I find this interesting? Why or why not?● How can I make this material personally relevant?● What strategies am I using that are working well or not well?● What is most challenging for me?● Which of my confusions have I clarified? Which remain and how can I clarify them?● How confident am I in my learning?Evaluating● What was this session about?● What did I hear today that contradicted my prior understanding?● What do I need to actively do to clarify my confusions?● What would I do differently next time?● What advice would I give a friend for learning this?ConclusionYou can’t outsource metacognition nor is anything we’ve covered here effective if you’re notrealistic about your own abilities. Metacognition should be an integral part of the learningprocess, not an afterthought. At every stage, you need to track your learning and makeadjustments, seeking out unbiased feedback. Without the regulation aspect, metacognitiveknowledge is futile. Combining it with action is a superpower.Further readingMetacognition and Cognitive Monitoring: A New Area of Cognitive Development Inquiry - JohnH. Flavell (PDF)How Learning Works: Seven Research-Backed Principles for Smart Teaching - Susan A Ambrose& 5 morePromoting Student Metacognition - Kimberly D. TannerThe Elements (and Pleasures) of Difficulty - Mariolina R. SalvatoriHow People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School - John Bransford and Rodney R CockingMake It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning - Peter Brown, Henry L Roediger III, and MarkMcDanieli